Intercostal Nerve Transfer in Management of Biceps and Triceps Cocontraction in Spontaneously Recovered Obstetric Brachial Plexus Palsy.

BACKGROUND: Obstetric brachial plexus palsy is caused by traction during birth. Most patients regain useful function with spontaneous recovery. In some cases, cross reinnervation occurs between the biceps and triceps muscles. In these cases, smooth active motion of the elbow joint is impaired by simultaneous biceps and triceps muscle contraction. The biceps and triceps muscle cocontraction could be treated by botulinum toxin type A injection, tendon transfer of the triceps to biceps, and intercostal nerves transfer to the musculocutaneous nerve (MCN) or to the motor branch of the radial nerve to the triceps muscle. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We present 16 cases (10 males and 6 females) with biceps and triceps cocontraction in spontaneously recovered obstetric brachial plexus palsy patients. They were treated by 3 intercostal nerves transfer to MCN without exploration of the remaining plexus. The mean age at surgery was 40.6 months (range, 24-65 months). Preoperative electromyography was done in all cases to confirm biceps and triceps cocontraction and to assess the contractile status of both muscles. RESULTS: The mean postoperative follow-up period was 51.7 months (range, 27-64 months). At the final follow-up, elbow flexion was graded 3 in 1 patient, grade 4 in 3 patients, grade 6 in 9 patients, and grade 7 in 3 patients using the 7-point Toronto scale. The mean active range of motion of the elbow (against gravity) increased from 38 degrees preoperatively (range, 0-75 degrees) to 96.8 °[Combining Ring Above] at the final follow-up (range, 60-140 degrees). CONCLUSIONS: Intercostal nerves transfer to MCN for management of biceps, and triceps cocontraction in spontaneously recovered obstetric brachial plexus injury is a good option with minimal morbidity and high success rate.

A Review of Brachial Plexus Birth Palsy: Injury and Rehabilitation.

Brachial plexus injuries during the birthing process can leave infants with upper extremity deficits corresponding to the location of the lesion within the complex plexus anatomy. Manifestations can range from mild injuries with complete resolution to severe and permanent disability. Overall, patients have a high rate of spontaneous recovery (66-92%).1,2 Initially, all lesions are managed with passive range motion and observation. Prevention and/or correction of contractures with occupational therapy and serial splinting/casting along with encouraging normal development are the main goals of non-operative treatment. Surgical intervention may be war- ranted, depending on functional recovery. [Full article available at http://rimed.org/rimedicaljournal-2017-11.asp].

Shoulder and elbow kinematics during the Mallet score in obstetrical brachial plexus palsy.

BACKGROUND: The physical signs of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy range from temporary upper-limb dysfunction to a lifelong impairment and deformity in one arm. The aim of this study was to analyze the kinematics of the upper limb and to evaluate the contribution of glenohumeral and scapulothoracic joints of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy children. METHODS: Six children participated in this study: 2 males and 4 females with a mean age of 11.7years. Three patients had a C5, C6 lesion and 3 had a C5, C6, C7 lesion. They were asked to perform five tasks based on the Mallet scale and the kinematic data were collected using the Fastrak electromagnetic tracking device. FINDINGS: The scapulothoracic protraction and posterior tilt were significantly increased in the involved limb during the hand to mouth task (p=0.006 and p=0.015 respectively). The scapulothoracic Protraction/glenohumeral Elevation ratio was significantly increased in the involved limb during the hand to neck task (p=0.041) and the elevation task (p=0.015). The ratios of scapulothoracic Tilt on the three glenohumeral excursion angles were significantly increased during the hand to mouth task (p≤0.041). The scapulothoracic Mediolateral/glenohumeral Elevation ratio was significantly increased in the involved limb during the elevation task (p=0.038). The glenohumeral elevation excursion was significantly decreased in the involved limb during the hand to neck task (p<0.001) and the elevation task (p=0.0003). INTERPRETATION: This study gives us information about the greater contribution of the scapulothoracic joint to shoulder motion for affected arm of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy patients compared to their unaffected arm. Kinematic analysis could be useful in shoulder motion evaluation during the Mallet score and to evaluate outcomes after surgery.

Hemi-hypoglossal nerve transfer for obstetric brachial plexus palsy: report of 3 cases.

Use of the entire hypoglossal nerve for nerve transfer in obstetric palsy is not recommended because of major donor nerve morbidity in terms of feeding and speech problems. We used a hemi-hypoglossal nerve transfer for biceps reinnervation in obstetric palsy in 3 infants with multiple root avulsions. Two of the 3 infants recovered normal or near-normal elbow flexion. There was no donor nerve morbidity in terms of feeding. Speech was assessed at age 20 to 27 months and was appropriate for age, which indicates that early speech development (speech intelligibility and articulation) were not affected. However, phonological development (expected to develop by age 3 y) and full consonant development (expected to be complete by age 5 y) could not be assessed because all children were younger than age 3 years at final follow-up. Our results confirm the relative safety of using a hemi-hypoglossal nerve transfer in infants. The transfer deserves study in a larger series and with longer follow-up, particularly regarding speech development.

[Obstetric brachial plexus injury]. / Obstetrisch plexus-brachialisletsel.

Obstetric palsy is a birth injury that occurs when the brachial plexus is damaged by traction. In the majority of patients spontaneous recovery will occur; however, in case of incomplete spontaneous recovery early neurosurgical intervention may be indicated. We present 3 case reports in this article, as well as describing the strategy favoured in our clinic. We recommend referring patients who have incomplete spontaneous recovery at the age of 1 month. At that age a good prediction of prognosis can be made by combining neurological examination with needle electromyography (EMG) of the biceps muscle.

Identification of pregnancies at increased risk of brachial plexus birth palsy - the construction of a weighted risk score.

OBJECTIVE: Since it is difficult to identify women at increased risk of fetal brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) during labor and delivery, we aimed to construct and validate a risk score. METHODS: A retrospective case-control study was undertaken in 2001 and 2006 in an urban context in Malmö, Sweden. A risk score was constructed for all women who had received routine municipal maternal health care at Skåne University Hospital (n = 10 459). The model was validated among all pregnant women with BPBP and controls in Sweden between 2006 and 2007. RESULTS: The likelihood of BPBP increased as the risk score rose: 3.1% of the women studied had a risk score ≥5, including 32.1% of the BPBP cases, where the risk showed a 38-fold increase, as compared to those with a risk score ≤1 (2/3 of the population). CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that it is possible to identify women at increased risk of having a child with BPBP by using variables observable in advance of delivery.

Isolated lower brachial plexus (Klumpke) palsy with compound arm presentation: case report.

Klumpke palsy has yet to be clearly documented in the newborn, because previous reports lack any description of the obstetrical history, clinical progression, or outcome. Based on a high incidence of breach presentation in the few clinical series that report Klumpke palsy, hyperabduction with arm overhead during delivery has been the presumed mechanism. We report a child with isolated lower brachial plexus palsy and Horner syndrome who presented at birth with a vertex compound arm presentation. Recognition of this condition and details of the clinical progression and outcome are important, because guidelines for management are currently not available.

Brachial plexus palsy and shoulder dystocia: obstetric risk factors remain elusive.

OBJECTIVE: Shoulder dystocia (SD) and brachial plexus palsy (BPP) are complications of childbirth that can result in significant long-term sequelae. The purpose of the present study was to analyze risk factors in cases of SD and BPP. METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of laboring women who delivered a singleton, term, live-born infant at the Los Angeles County + University of Southern California Medical Center from 1995 to 2004. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyze risk factors among SD cases with and without BPP. RESULTS: Of the 13,998 deliveries that met inclusion criteria, 221 (1.6%) had SD. Of these, 42 (19.0%) had BPP. After testing for association with multiple potential risk factors, including maternal demographic variables, diabetes, hypertension, prior cesarean delivery, uterine abnormalities, induction of labor, prolonged second stage (adjusted by parity and epidural use), assisted vaginal delivery, and neonatal birth weight, no statistical association of BPP with any specific risk factor was identified. CONCLUSION: In the present study, we were unable to identify any reliable risk factors for BPP among deliveries with or without SD. SD and BPP remain unpredictable complications of childbirth.

Impact of obstetrical brachial plexus injury on parents.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to describe the impact of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) on parents and to investigate the effect of the severity of OBPP and the age of the children on parents. METHODS: A total of 106 parents (with a mean age of 30.14 ± 5.01 years) of children with OBPP were included in the study. The functional level of the children was assessed by the Active Movement Scale, whereas the impact of OBPP on the parents was assessed by the Turkish version of the Impact on Family Scale. RESULTS: The parents appeared to be moderately affected by their child's disorder. Financial, social, personal, mastery parameters and total impact values were 52% (27-77%), 65% (46-114%), 49% (31-67%), 51% (28-74%) and 56% (40-72%), respectively. Root involvement and the age of the children did not make a statistically significant difference in the level of impact. CONCLUSIONS: Detailed knowledge of the impact of OBPP on families might provide a chance to support affected families in coping with the situation and decrease their burden in providing care for the children. It is crucial to evaluate and provide social support to parents of children with OBPP.

Arachnoid cyst masquerading as obstetric brachial plexus palsy.

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy is not uncommon. However, lesions masquerading as obstetric brachial plexus palsy are rare. A child with a cervicothoracic arachnoid cyst masquerading as obstetric brachial plexus palsy is presented, and the relevant literature is reviewed. A girl born by vaginal delivery at full term without any antecedent risk factors for obstetric brachial plexus palsy was noted to have decreased movements of the right upper extremity. After 7 months, there was no improvement. An MRI scan was obtained, which revealed a cervicothoracic spinal extradural arachnoid cyst. During surgery, the cyst was found to communicate with the dura at the axilla of the C-7 nerve root. The cyst was excised in toto. Six months later, there was improvement in the infant's neurological status. This case illustrates that spinal arachnoid cysts should be entertained in the differential diagnosis when a child presents with obstetric brachial plexus palsy without known antecedent risk factors for obstetric palsy.

Needle electromyography at 1 month predicts paralysis of elbow flexion at 3 months in obstetric brachial plexus lesions.

AIM: Treatment decisions in obstetric brachial plexus lesions are often based on clinical paralysis of elbow flexion at 3 months of age, when electromyography (EMG) is misleading because motor unit potentials (MUPs) occur in clinically paralytic muscles. We investigated whether EMG at 1 week or 1 month identifies infants with flexion paralysis at 3 months, allowing early referral. METHOD: Forty-eight infants (27 females, 21 males) were prospectively studied. The presence or absence of flexion paralysis at around 1 week (median 9 d; range 5-17d), 1 month (median 31 d; range 24-53 d), and 3 months of age (median 87 d; range 77-106 d) was noted for clinical (shoulder external rotation, elbow flexion, extension, and supination) and EMG parameters (denervation activity, MUPs and polyphasic MUPs in the deltoid, biceps, and triceps muscles). RESULTS: At 1 month, the absence of biceps MUPs had a sensitivity of 95% for later flexion paralysis, and absence of deltoid MUPs had a sensitivity of 100% for flexion paralysis; the false-positive rates for the same findings were 21% and 33% respectively. EMG at 3 months was highly misleading as MUPs were seen in 19 of 20 clinically paralytic biceps muscles. INTERPRETATION: EMG at 1 month can identify severe cases of flexion paralysis for early referral EMG of the biceps at 3 months is highly misleading; the discrepancy between the EMG and clinical testing may be due to abnormal axonal branching and aberrant central motor control.

Centering osteotomy for treatment of posterior shoulder dislocation in obstetrical palsy.

BACKGROUND: The main objective of this study is to describe a new surgical technique that, through a gleno-humeral approach, reduces the incongruent joint while a humeral head centering osteotomy achieves shoulder stabilization. A humeral medial derotational osteotomy is performed associated with the articular reduction. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fourteen patients with obstetrical palsy presenting a posterior humeral head dislocation were submitted to a centering osteotomy procedure. Our study included patients with: (1) more than 1.5 years postoperative follow-up, (2) presence of humeral head posterior dislocation. The exclusion criteria were the following: (1) patients with total flaccid paralysis, (2) low paralysis and (3) any kind of active infection at the time of the procedure. RESULTS: Before treatment, in all patients, the shoulder joint was posteriorly dislocated and in internal rotation. All patients went on to have successful healing at the osteotomy site. In all cases, an improvement in the functional Mallet scale was observed. In all patients, except one, the posterior dislocation was corrected. In two cases, a second surgery (external derotation osteotomy) was performed to improve the upper extremity's position. CONCLUSIONS: Articular congruency, after posterior dislocations of the humeral head, is achieved by humeral head centering osteotomy in patients with obstetrical palsy late deformities and also improves function. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV; case series.

Una mirada a la parálisis braquial obstétrica / A glance to obstetric brachial paralysis

Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica sobre diversos aspectos de las parálisis braquiales obstétricas. Se expresan criterios de diagnóstico y se exponen opciones de tratamiento rehabilitador y quirúrgico(AU)

We carried out a bibliographic review on the different aspects of the obstetric brachial paralysis. We express diagnostic criteria and expose options of surgical and rehabilitating treatments(AU)

Outcomes associated with introduction of a shoulder dystocia protocol.

The objective of this study was to assess outcomes that are associated with the implementation of a shoulder dystocia protocol that is focused on team response. We identified women who had a shoulder dystocia during 3 time periods: 6 months before (period A), 6 months during (period B), and 6 months after (period C) the institution of a shoulder dystocia protocol. Documentation and health outcomes were compared among the time periods. During the study period, 254 women (77, 100, and 77 in periods A, B, and C, respectively) had a shoulder dystocia. There were no differences among study periods in patient characteristics. However, complete and consistent documentation increased (14% to 50% to 92%; P < .001), and brachial plexus palsy that was diagnosed at delivery (10.1% to 4.0% to 2.6%; P = .03) and at neonatal discharge (7.6% to 3.0% to 1.3%; P = .04) declined.

[Perinatal brachial plexus palsy]. / Perinatální paréza brachiálního plexu.

Upper limbs palsy as a result of affliction of plexus brachialis nervous bunch is disorder, whose frequency moves among 0.42-5.1 / 1000 liveborn children. Delivery mechanism itself certain weighty, no however only cause rising paralysis. Some way paralysis rise already intrauterinne, some way then at surgical childbirth per sectionem caeseream. Brachial plexus palsy isn't benign disorder. If isn't this disorder in time diagnosed and accordingly treated, child threatens late aftermath, especially significant limitation of limbs movement with functional consequencies.

Ulnar nerve to musculocutaneous nerve transfer in an ulnar ray-deficient infant with brachial plexus birth palsy: case report.

In Oberlin's nerve transfer, a fascicle of the ulnar nerve is sutured end-to-end to the branch of musculocutaneous nerve to the biceps muscle in the arm. This transfer is commonly used in adult traumatic C5-C6 avulsion injuries of the brachial plexus. We report the successful use of Oberlin nerve transfer in an ulnar ray-deficient infant with brachial plexus birth palsy.

Secuela de las paralisis obstetricas del hombro / Shoulder deformities and sequelae secondary to brachial plexus birth palsy

Introducción: Es una afección infrecuente; nuestra experiencia consiste en 92 casos tratados en 25 años. Materiales y métodos: De los 92 pacientes operados, 67 presentaron deformidades osteoarticulares y 31, deformidades de las partes blandas. La metodología fue retrospectiva clínico-funcional, analítica y descriptiva considerando las historias clínicas y la valoración personal. Para el tratamiento se utilizó el algoritmo de Bennett y Christopher. Se efectuó en ocasiones la microcirugía temprana del plexo. A los 4 años algunos pacientes pueden requerir cirugías paliativas. Resultados: Con las cirugías del plexo y paliativas, se consiguió, en las lesiones C5-C6, la recuperación hasta en el 80 por ciento de los casos. Tratándose de cuadros distintos no comparables que requieren técnicas diversas, se consideraron los resultados en un porcentual global. Conclusiones: La reparación microquirúrgica del plexo braquial, efectuada en tiempo y forma, mejora los resultados en hasta un 75 por ciento. Agrupamos las secuelas en dos grandes grupos: uno sin alteraciones en la morfología osteoarticular y uno con ellas (displasia glenoidea, retroversión de la cabeza humeral y aplanamiento de la cabeza humeral). Las técnicas originales de Sever y de Sever-L'Episcopo están proscritas. Destacamos la utilidad del procedimiento de Roper efectuado antes de los 5 años de edad. Entre las cirugías del plexo y paliativas se puede lograr, en las lesiones C5-C6, una recuperación de hasta el 80 por ciento.

Secuela de las paralisis obstetricas del hombro / Shoulder deformities and sequelae secondary to brachial plexus birth palsy

Introducción: Es una afección infrecuente; nuestra experiencia consiste en 92 casos tratados en 25 años. Materiales y métodos: De los 92 pacientes operados, 67 presentaron deformidades osteoarticulares y 31, deformidades de las partes blandas. La metodología fue retrospectiva clínico-funcional, analítica y descriptiva considerando las historias clínicas y la valoración personal. Para el tratamiento se utilizó el algoritmo de Bennett y Christopher. Se efectuó en ocasiones la microcirugía temprana del plexo. A los 4 años algunos pacientes pueden requerir cirugías paliativas. Resultados: Con las cirugías del plexo y paliativas, se consiguió, en las lesiones C5-C6, la recuperación hasta en el 80 por ciento de los casos. Tratándose de cuadros distintos no comparables que requieren técnicas diversas, se consideraron los resultados en un porcentual global. Conclusiones: La reparación microquirúrgica del plexo braquial, efectuada en tiempo y forma, mejora los resultados en hasta un 75 por ciento. Agrupamos las secuelas en dos grandes grupos: uno sin alteraciones en la morfología osteoarticular y uno con ellas (displasia glenoidea, retroversión de la cabeza humeral y aplanamiento de la cabeza humeral). Las técnicas originales de Sever y de Sever-LEpiscopo están proscritas. Destacamos la utilidad del procedimiento de Roper efectuado antes de los 5 años de edad. Entre las cirugías del plexo y paliativas se puede lograr, en las lesiones C5-C6, una recuperación de hasta el 80 por ciento.(AU)

Total obstetric brachial plexus palsy: results and strategy of microsurgical reconstruction.

From 2000 to 2006, 35 infants with total obstetric brachial plexus palsy underwent brachial plexus exploration and reconstruction. The mean age at surgery was 10.8 months (range 3-60 months), and the median age was 8 months. All infants were followed for at least 2.5 years (range 2.5-7.3 years) with an average follow-up of 4.2 years. Assessment was performed using the Toronto Active Movement scale. Surgical procedures included neurolysis, neuroma excision and interposition nerve grafting and neurotization, using spinal accessory nerve, intercostals and contralateral C7 root. Satisfactory recovery was obtained in 37.1% of cases for shoulder abduction; 54.3% for shoulder external rotation; 75.1% for elbow flexion; 77.1% for elbow extension; 61.1% for finger flexion, 31.4% for wrist extension and 45.8% for fingers extension. Using the Raimondi score, 18 cases (53%) achieved a score of three or more (functional hand). The mean Raimondi score significantly improved postoperatively as compared to the preoperative mean: 2.73 versus 1, and showed negative significant correlation with age at surgery. In total, obstetrical brachial plexus palsy, early intervention is recommended. Intercostal neurotization is preferred for restoration of elbow flexion. Tendon transfer may be required to improve external rotation in selected cases. Apparently, intact C8 and T1 roots should be left alone if the patient has partial hand recovery, no Horner syndrome, and was operated early (3- or 4-months old). Apparently, intact nonfunctioning lower roots with no response to electrical stimulation, especially in the presence of Horner syndrome, should be neurotized with the best available intraplexal donor.